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The mighty Luce or Pike is taken to be the Tyrant，as the Salmon is the King，of the fresh waters.It’s not to be doubted but that they are bred，some by generation，and some not：as namely，of a weed called Pickerel -weed，unless learned Gesner be much mistaken；for he says，this weed and other glutinous matter，with the help of the sun’s heat in some particular months，and some ponds apted for it by nature，do become Pikes.But doubtless divers Pikes are bred after this manner，or are brought into some ponds some such other ways as are past man’s finding out，of which we have daily testimonies.
Sir Francis Bacon，in his ’History of Life and Death，’observes the Pike to be the longest -lived of any fresh -water fish，and yet he computes it to be not usually above forty years；and others think it to be not a bove ten years：and yet Gesner mentions a Pike taken in Swedeland in the year 1449，with a ring about his neck，declaring he was put into that pond by Frdderick the Second，more than two hundred years before he was last taken，as by the inscription in that ring，being Greek，was interpreted by the then Bishop of Worms.But of this no more，but that it is observed that the old or very great Pikes have in them more of state than goodness；the smaller or middle -sized Pikes being by the most and choicest palates observed to be the best meat：and，contrary，the eel is observed to be the better for age and bigness.
All Pikes that live long prove chargeable to their keepers，because their life is maintained by the death of so many other fish，even those of their own kind；which has made him by some writers to be called the Ty rant of the Rivers，or the Fresh -Water -Wolf，by reason of his bold，greedy，devouring disposition；which is so keen，as Gesner relates，a man going to a pond，where it seems a Pike had devoured all the fish，to water his mule，had a Pike bit his mule by the lips；to which the Pike hung so fast，that the mule drew him out of the water，and by that accident the owner of the mule angled out the Pike.And the same Gesner observes，that a maid in Poland had a Pike bit her by the foot as she was washing clothes in a pond.And I have heard the like of a woman in Killingworth Pond，not far from Coventry.But I have been assured by my friend Mr.Seagrave，of whom I spake to you formerly，that keeps tame Otters，that he hath known a Pike，in extreme hunger，fight with one of his Otters for a Carp that the Otter had caught，and was then bringing out of the wa ter.I have told you who relate these things，and tell you they are persons of credit；and shall conclude this observation by telling you what a wise man has observed：’It is a hard thing to persuade the belly，because it has no ears.’

One of the many theories about alcoholism is the learning and reinforcement theory，which explains al coholism by considering alcohol ingestion as reflex response to some stimulus and as a way to reduce an inner-drive state such as fear or anxiety.Characterizing life situations in terms of approach and avoidance，this theory holds that persons tend to be drawn to pleasant situations or repelled by unpleasant ones.In the latter case，alcohol ingestion is said to reduce the tension or feelings of unpleasantness and to replace them with the feeling of euphoria generally observed in most persons after they have consumed one’or more drinks.
Some experimental evidence tends to show that alcohol reduces fear in an approach -avoidance ’situation.Conger trained one group rats to approach a food goal and，using aversive conditioning，trained another group to avoid electric shock.After an injection of alcohol the pull away from the shock was measurably weaker，while the pull toward food was unchanged.
The obvious troubles experienced by alcoholic persons appear to contradict the learning theory in the explanation of alcoholism.The discomfort，pain，and punishment they experience should presumably serve as a deterrent to drinking.The fact that alcoholic persons continue to drink in the face of family discord，loss of employment，illness，and other sequels of repeated bouts is explained by the proximity of the drive reduction to the consumption of alcohol；that is，alcohol has the immediate effect of reducing tension while the unpleasant consequences of drunken behavior.come only later.The learning paradigm，therefore，favors the establishment and repetition of the resort to alcohol.
In fact，the anxieties and feelings of guilt induced by the consequences of excessive alcohol ingestion may themselves become the signal for another bout of alcohol abuse.The way in which the cue for another bout could be the anxiety itself is explained by the process of stimulus generalization：Conditions or events occurring at the time of reinforcement tend to acquire the characteristics of stimuli.When alcohol is consumed in association with a state of anxiety or fear，the emotional state itself takes on the properties of a stimulus，thus triggering another drinking bout.
The role of punishment is becoming increasingly important in formulating a cause of alcoholism based on the principles of learning theory.While punishment may serve to suppress a response，experiments have shown that in some.cases it can serve as a reward and reinforce the behavior.Thus if the alcoholic person has learned to drink under conditions of both reward and punishment，either type of condition may precipitate renewed drinking.
Ample experimental evidence supports the hypothesis that excessive alcohol consumption can be learn ed.By gradually increasing the concentration of alcohol in drinking water，psychologists have been able to in duce the ingestion of larger amounts of alcohol by an animal than would be normally consumed.Other re searchers have been able to achieve similar results by varying the schedule of reinforcement；that is，by requiring the animal to consume larger and larger amounts of the alcohol solutions before rewarding it.In this manner，animals learn to drink enough to become dependent on alcohol in terms of demonstrating withdrawal symptoms.